In the early 1980s I put together copious notes about the Roman Forum that I had gotten from various sources. I can’t recall what those sources were and I don’t know if I copied much of my notes verbatim from those sources. I rediscovered these notes recently and was quite pleased with their clarity and and conciseness. I decided to add a bit more detail so as to make them understandable by any reader interested in travel or history.
I compared some of my notes with information in Wikipedia and found many discrepancies. Wikipedia is careful to state that there are differences in interpretation by archaeologists and that the ancient written sources are often in conflict. Although I have a lot of faith in the accuracy of Wikipedia, I decided to keep the information in my notes anyway. They basically represent the opinions of whatever sources I used more than 40 years ago.
The monuments in the Roman Forum remained largely intact until the late 15th century when they began to be dismantled so that the marble and stones could be reused to construct new churches and palaces.
Early Rome and the Roman Forum
Latins settled on Palatine Hill around 1000 BC. Sabines settled on Quirinal and Esquiline Hills shortly after. Both spoke related languages. By the seventh century BC they united, at first only for common worship. By 600 BC the community included the Caelian Hill, the region adjoining the Tiber, and the Aventine and Viminal Hills. (By this time the Latins and Sabines had become a single civilization, although there were still some differences in their cultures. There were a lot of intermarriages. In this article these people from this point will be referred to as Romans and the community will be referred to as Rome.)
The hills of Rome surrounded a marsh. Even by 700 BC the villages of the Palatine and Esquiline Hills employed parts of this marsh as a cemetery. (Latins used cremations and Sabines used inhumations.) By 670-660 BC overcrowding on the slopes of the hills cause some people to build huts in the marsh and to begin drainage. By 575 BC there was more drainage, more huts, and fewer burials in this area. When the drainage was nearly complete the forum was built in the center as a pebble-floored market place. It was approached by simple streets and adjoined by old shops and houses made of brick and stone.
Terracotta sculpture and pottery became more and more sophisticated. (Inspiration came from the Etruscans whose art was an adaptation of Greek art.) Etruscan civilization was more advanced and powerful than the Roman civilization.
During most of the 6th century BC, most of the time Rome was controlled by Etruscan dynasties. Tradition states that during this period some of Rome’s kings were Etruscans. Under the Etruscans Rome was transformed into a city with several forums at or near the city center. (There were separate forums for the sale of cattle, pigs, fish, and vegetables.) The Etruscans built the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill (this temple competed in size with almost every shrine in the Greek world and remained the largest building in Rome for 500 years.)
The Romans were influenced by neighboring civilizations. They adopted many Etruscan words including proper names. The Greek tales of Hercules influenced the Romans so much that Hercules became a cult figure in Rome. There was also a great deal of maritime trade between the Romans and the Greek colonies in southern Italy as well as with the city-states in Greece. However, the Etruscan influences on Rome were significantly greater than the Greek influences.
The main drainage system, the “Great Drain” (Cloaca Maxima) in Rome was developed by the Etruscans. The drain collected various streams which ran through the valleys between the hills, passed through the eastern edge of the main forum, and emptied into the Tiber. (The arched vaults of the Cloaca Maxima can still be seen. The arched tops are newer – no older than the 2nd century BC, but the side walls supporting them are considerably older.) Eventually the goddess Cloaca became identified with the Great Drain and a shrine for her was erected in the main forum.
Initially the main forum was 300 feet by 200 feet and faced north-south. Near the end of the Roman Republic period Sulla and Julius Caesar revised it so it became oriented NE-SW. The main forum was named the Roman Forum to distinguish it from the other forums. The oldest street is the “Via Sacra” (Sacred Way), and the next oldest is the “Via Nova” (New Way).
In 510 BC the Romans rebelled against the Etruscan rule and set up the Roman Republic. One of the oldest Latin inscriptions (early 6th century BC) is in the Roman Forum and is called “Lapis Niger” (Black Stone). It is not clear if the location was intended to be a sacred place. The original inscriptions are in the Forum Museum. There is a replica at the site. In the early 4th century BC the Romans built the Servian Wall, a defensive barrier to surround the six hills of Rome east of the Tiber.
The Most Sacred Precinct
Temple of Vesta (map item 1)
The Temple of Vesta was devoted to the cult of the sacred fire which was never allowed to die out. Originally the temple merely provided burning embers to anyone whose fire at home had died out. Gradually it became the center of a cult, starting with the Latins on the Palatine Hill. The fire came to symbolize the perpetuity of the Roman state. But it was not until the middle of the Roman Republic that Vesta, the goddess of fire, (like other Roman gods) was personified.
A deep pit which used to exist in the middle of the temple was used to sacrifice and cremate animals. The facade of the temple was built circa 200 AD and the existing structure may not be the original.
The House of the Vestal Virgins (map item 2)
This was the residence of the Vestal Virgins, who were the guardians of the Temple of Vesta. Their chief function was to tend the fire in the Temple of Vesta. Initially there were 2 Vestal Virgins, then in later years 4, and then many years later 6 divided into 3 juniors and 3 seniors. They were recruited between the ages of 6 and 10. Originally the term of service was 5 years but later it became a contract for 30 years. They were forced to practice complete sexual abstinence. Any violation would be punished by live burial in an underground chamber beneath the Field of Criminals located outside Rome’s north gate.
The original House of the Vestal Virgins dates from 715-672 BC but it was replaced several times over the years. By the 2nd century AD the house had a facade of marble which is now gone. The colonnades in the courtyard date to 300 BC. All around the courtyard are statues of Vestal Virgins that date from 200-400 AD.
The House of the Vestal Virgins at one time was also used for the safe deposit of public and private documents, including wills. In 45 BC Julius Caesar deposited his will here.
The Chief Priest’s House and Office (The Regia) (map item 3)
This building was called “The Regia” (Latin for “royal”) because it might have been the home of the early kings. Later, when the monarchy was displaced by the Roman Republic, the building was used by the Chief Priests to conduct official business.
During the Republic period the Chief Priest’s house was part of or connected to the House of the Vestal Virgins. It was later rebuilt several feet away from the Temple of Vesta. The remains of the site are hard to see and understand at the present.
An older Regia lies below the current ruins and was built on top of earlier huts. Finds on and near the spot suggest that the first Regia was erected in about 575 BC just at the time when the Roman Forum was becoming the main square. The Regia was reconstructed again in 36 BC and further rebuilt after fires in 64 AD and 191 AD. The Regia contained the shrine of Mars and the shield of Mars (dating from the bronze age) which was used in war ceremonies.
Julius Caesar resided here after his surprise election as Chief Priest in 63 BC.
Shrines for the Gods
The Temple of Saturn (map item 4)
All that remains of this third oldest temple are eight columns on a pedestal (oldest temple is the Temple of Jupiter, second oldest is the Temple of the Vestal Virgins). Carved onto the temple is the symbol of a sickle which was a sign of Saturn. The temple was the storage place for the bronze tablets on which the laws of the Roman state were inscribed. At the back of the temple, holes and iron fastenings in the wall still show where the tablets were posted up. The temple also housed the Roman Treasury.
Roman temples differed from Greek temples which had stairways on all 4 sides and a vestibule in back as well as in front. Roman temples have steps only in front while the back and sides have solid walls. The Roman fashion was to have all attention concentrated on the front.
The present temple is said to have been started in 616-578 BC. Fragmentary remnants of an earlier temple can be seen under the southeastern wall. It includes traces of an alter with a shallow channel to carry away the blood of sacrificial victims. Reconstruction occurred in 42 BC and in the 4th century AD. The present Ionic capitals date from this last rebuilding. They had originally been Corinthian. The restoration work was shoddily done ─ one of the columns was erected upside down.
The Temple of Castor and Pollux (map item 5)
The temple is named for the twins Castor and Pollux from a myth borrowed from the Greek colonies in southern Italy. (Castor was a mortal, while Pollux was a demigod, the son of Zeus.) The ballot box for voting was stored here as was one of Rome’s Bureau of Standards (the main one was on the Capitoline Hill).
All that are left of the temple are the columns of marble that were originally gotten from Mount Pentelicon near Athens. The temple dates to about the transitional period between the monarchy and the Republic. It was reconstructed in 117 BC and rebuilt after each of several fires that devastated Rome. The surviving columns and architectural decoration may date to the first century AD.
The Spring of Juturna (map item 6)
This monument commemorates the site where the mythical twins Castor and Pollux watered their horses after the battle of Lake Regillus where the Romans defeated the Latin League. The balustrade which runs round three sides of the basin displays a copy of a marble altar. On its main sides are reliefs of Castor and Pollux and their sister Helen. The altar dates from the 2nd century AD.
The Portico of the Twelve Gods (map item 7)
This sanctuary was erected for Jupiter and his divine council and dates from the third century BC. The portico now consists of nine small columns of marble with Corinthian capitals. The colonnade forms two sides of an obtuse angle. Beneath it originally lay unidentified rooms and behind the portico itself were twelve small chapels built into the hill. Virtually the whole building as we see it now is a reconstruction dating to 367 AD.
The rebuilding of this portico was in support of the ancient gods, a gesture of defiance since the empire had been officially Christian since the time of Constantine the Great (306-337 AD). Many people felt that the great misfortunes the empire was experiencing was due to the abandonment of the ancient gods.
Shrines for the Caesars
The Temple of Julius Caesar (map item 8)
This temple is located where Julius Caesar’s body was cremated in 44 BC. The actual spot where the body was burned is where the round altar now stands. After the cremation Caesar’s ashes were moved to the family tomb in the Field of Mars (between Rome and the river Tiber).
Initially an altar on a 20 foot high column of Numidian marble was erected here to commemorate Caesar. It was soon ordered destroyed by Antony. A few years later Augustus dedicated a temple on this spot for Caesar which had an effigy of Caesar against the back wall. This temple was rebuilt on a number of occasions (often because of fires) but now all that remains is the platform and the round altar.
The Temple of Vespasian and Titus (map item 9)
This temple commemorates two deified emperors, Vespasian and Titus, who died in AD 79 and AD 81 respectively. Three soaring columns survive, rising to a height of 50 feet. They belong to a corner of what was once a porch of eight columns that faced the Roman Forum. The pedestal was once covered by marble.
This temple is on the lower slope of the Capitoline Hill. It can best be seen from the Via del Foro Romano which overlies part of the Capitoline rise.
The Temple of Antoninus and Faustina (map item 10)
This temple was initially dedicated to Faustina, the wife of emperor Antoninus (AD 138-161). After the death of Antoninus the temple was rededicated to both Antoninus and Faustina. There used to be columns along the side walls and effigies of the deified couple at the top within the colonnade.
This building later became incorporated in the Church of St. Lawrence. There is an item of graffiti on this temple of the Chi-Rho symbol of Christ, flanked by the letters alpha and omega. It is believed to be from the second half of the 4th century AD, and has been claimed to be the oldest Christian relic in the Roman Forum area.
The “Temple of Romulus” (map item 11)
This temple may commemorate Romulus, the deified son of emperor Maxentius. It dates from the early 4th century AD and was the last pagan gesture of its kind at the time when the Romans were choosing whether to convert to Christianity. The identification of this building cannot be regarded as certain and many questions still exist. This temple has survived because it was attached to the Church of Saint Cosmas and Damian as a vestibule or antechapel.
The marble covering of this round brick building is gone and its present roof is not original. The building used to be adjoined on either side by small rectangular halls terminating in apses at their far ends. In front of each of these side halls was a porch, with two columns of Cipollino marble (those on the right side still exist). The bronze doors are original and the lock still works.
The Meeting Places of People and Senate
The Imperial Rostra (map item 12)
The Imperial Rostra was the main platform for public speaking and provided a meeting place for the Assembly of the People. It was begun by Julius Caesar and completed by Augustus and was renovated many times during the empire period and at least once in later years.
Behind the Imperial Rostra’s curved staircase there is a round brick base on which once stood a cone representing the navel of Rome (an imitation of Greek custom). Many years prior to the empire period the Rostra was located in front of the Senate House. Julius Caesar had the Rostra rebuilt at its present site. The new Rostra was made identical to the old and was made much larger than the old one in order to accommodate a larger audience.
Dowel holes drilled into the Imperial Rostra hold the decorative prows of ships captured from the defeated Latin League in a naval battle at Antium (Anzio). This feature dates back to the fourth century BC. The Golden Milestone, which was set up by Augustus, is at one corner of the Imperial Rostra. It states the distances between the capital and other chief cities of the empire.
The Senate House (map item 13)
The original Senate House was built by the semi-legendary king Tullus Hostillius (672-640 BC) and used by senators acting as council to the king. After various reconstructions the building was redesigned and probably enlarged in about 78 BC, and the number of senators doubled from the original 100 to 200. No official record of senatorial proceedings was published until 59 BC, when Julius Caesar, as consul, arranged for its regular publication.
The Senate House was burned down in 52 BC during the rioting after the impromptu funeral of Publius Clodius Pulcher. Soon after it was rebuilt and the number of senators was increased to 600. During the empire period the Senate lost its importance and became nothing more than a High Court – where often its own members came up for trial. It was burned down a few more times when fires swept through Rome but rebuilt each time.
The present building dates to AD 283. The small portico facing the Roman Forum and the marble that covered the lower part of the brick frontage are gone. The bronze doors are copies of the originals, which were removed in the 17th century to be used in the Basilica of St. John Lateran, where they are still to be seen today. The design, typical of the later empire period, is far from being classical.
The Senate House is mostly intact because it was converted to a church (the basilica of Sant’Adriano al Foro) approximately 200 years after the collapse of the Roman Empire. The roof, upper walls, and rear facade are modern, having been rebuilt in the 1930s.
Vaults and Arcades
The Ancient Dungeons (map item 14)
The Ancient Roman Dungeons are now completely covered by the Church of Saint Joseph (San Giuseppe dei Falignami, completed in 1598 AD). Beneath the crypt of the church are two levels of small cells which were used as a temporary prison during the times of the Republic and Empire (Note: Roman Law did not include imprisonment as a punishment). The two levels served different purposes. The top level was used for the detention of wrongdoers until their sentence was pronounced. The lower level was used for the temporary accommodation of condemned criminals whose execution was to take place in private rather than in public. The condemned prisoners were let down into a dark pit to wait their end by strangulation or starvation.
The Roman invention of concrete brought into being the use of mighty vaults, round arches, and spectacular arcades. All of these features are used in the construction of the Ancient Dungeons. Part of the straight lower wall dates to the 4th or 3rd century BC and the dark gray circular wall dates to 250 BC. Parts of the wall next to the staircase dates to 24 AD and another part to 42 AD. The channel to the Great Drain in the prison was extended to eliminate not only the overflow of water from a well in the prison, but the corpses of the victims too.
The Records Office (map item 15)
The Record Office not only served as Rome’s archives but as an annex to the treasury in the Temple of Saturn. An inscription inside the building indicates that the Records Office was completed in 78 BC but now only the substructure belongs to this period. Just above this is a slightly newer story which appears today as a wall interrupted by huge round arches 24.5 feet high and 12 feet wide, each flanked by Doric columns and topped by a horizontal lintel.
Only three of the arches are left but seven others were filled in with brick during the Middle Ages. For a long time only one of the arches was fully visible, but two more have been cleared in recent years. The others can’t be cleared because they would not be able to support the heavy building whose stones have gotten greatly corroded by salt that was stored in the building in medieval times. Another arch had originally been above this one but it was demolished in the 16th century to make way for the construction of other buildings. The ancient Record Office was once covered by stucco. The walls at the bottom are 11 feet thick.
The Basilica Aemilia (map item 16)
The Basilica Aemilia was used as a meeting place for social and commercial activities, especially for money lending. It was originally an internally colonnaded, oblong hall. In 159 BC it was furnished with Rome’s first reliable timepiece – a water clock.
Built in 179 BC, it was the second oldest basilica in the Roman Forum (the oldest, the Basilica Porcia, was burned down during riots in 52 BC, and the third oldest is Basilica Julia). It had a wooden roof and was susceptible to fire. It was renovated in 79 BC and again in 55-34 BC. It was restored by Augusts after a fire in 14 BC. When the Visigoths sacked Rome in 410 AD it caught fire again and is now a gutted shell. Green stains on the floor reveal melted copper coins from this fire.
The Basilica Julia (map item 17)
The Basilica Julia was a place of law courts dealing with civil suits but it also included galleries of shops. It had two stories and had an arcade of round arches incorporating large columns. Diagrams scratched on the floor, mostly circular but some rectangular, served as game boards on which visitors passed the time while waiting for their court cases to come up.
The Basilica Julia is the third oldest basilica in the Roman Forum. It dates to 170 AD and was built on the site of the former Basilica Sempronia. It had a wooden roof, and like the Basilica Aemilia, it was susceptible to fire. Augustus had it restored after a major fire. It was again restored after the fire of 283 AD and the attack of the Visigoths in 410 AD. Today, like the Basilica Aemilia, the Basilica Julia is just a shell.
The Basilica Nova of Maxentius (map item 18)
The Basilica Nova of Maxentius was another law court. It was begun by Emperor Maxentius (306-312 AD) and completed by Emperor Constantine (312-337 AD). In front of the building stood Corinthian columns 47 feet high made of a creamy red-veined marble from the Sea of Marmara. They have vanished from the site, but one still remains evidently because it was converted for Christian purpose with a statue of the Madonna and Child on top. Originally the building had a marble covering to a certain height and the rest was stucco.
The huge scale of this building marks a change from architecture at the “humanism” level to one in which the individual is a minute component of the mass. The architecture had changed and looks more medieval and Romanesque than classical.
The Monumental Arches
The Arch of Titus (map item 19)
The Arch of Titus commemorates Titus’s suppression of the Jewish Revolt and his destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD. Sculpted into the arch are scenes depicting the conquest of Jerusalem. One scene shows a procession carrying the spoils of war from Jerusalem. They include a Menorah and the silver trumpets that the sons of Aaron blew to summon the hosts of Israel. At one time there was a statue on top of Vespasian and Titus in a four-horse chariot.
The Arch of Septimus Severus (map item 20)
The Arch of Septimus Severus was built in the years 193 AD – 211 AD to celebrate the victories of Severus, his sons, and his colleagues over the Parthians and their allies in Mesopotania and Assyria. The arch is very large, being 75 feet high and 82 feet wide. Its interior is divided into several vaulted chambers reached by an internal staircase. It is built of Pentelic marble and has three openings. On top used to be statues of the emperor and his sons in a chariot of six horses, with further equestrian statues to the right and left. Holes at the sides of the arch suggest that shields and other metal ornaments or trophies were attached to it. Reliefs on the arch depict scenes from the eastern campaigns.
The arch of Severus marks a move away from classicism in Roman sculpture. Individual human beings are squat and insignificant and are intended to represent crowds rather than persons. There is a move away from the old, classical humanism which had now degenerated into decadence – towards the two-dimensional, frontal, rhythmically repetitive techniques of Byzantine art.
Miscellaneous
Library of the Forum of Peace (map item 21)
This library was built by Vespasian from the spoils of the Jewish War (70 AD). It was built in the Imperial Forum adjacent to the Roman Forum. However, it is listed here because the walls were incorporated into the church of Saints Cosmas and Damian in 526-530 AD which is in the Roman Forum.
Column of Phocas (map item 22)
The Column of Phocas was dedicated to the Eastern Roman emperor Phocas (602-610 AD). It was the last traditional monument of the Roman Forum and the only monument built in Rome during Phocus’s reign. It is a fluted Corinthian pillar 44 feet high. It originally belonged to a building in early empirical times, and its pedestal to a 4th century AD structure. Both columns and pedestal were ordered moved to the present site by Phocas.
Arch of Augustus (map item 23)
This triumphal arch of Augustus was built as a single column possibly in 29 BC. After 19 AD it was transformed into a three-arched monument, which at that time was still a rare architectural feature. Only foundations and fragments exist today.
Golden House of Nero (map item 24)
The Golden House of Nero was built in 54-68 AD. The main building was on the Esquiline Hill north of the Roman Forum and the vestibule stretched out for a mile across the Sacred Way and the New Way. It was considered a sign of great decadence, far beyond what was in evidence at that time and it caused great embarrassment to Nero’s successors. Already shortly after Nero’s death part of the grounds was being used for the construction of other buildings. The Golden House was destroyed by fire in 104 AD.
Temple of Concord (map item 25)
The Temple of Concord was built in 367 BC to commemorate the historic reconciliation between patrician and plebeians. The building was restored in 121 BC and the base, dating from this restoration, displays the earliest known use of concrete in Rome. During the Republic period the Senate often met in this temple. Another restoration followed in 7-10 AD. The ground plan of the restoration still remains. Tiberius and Livia endowed the temple with a valuable collection of Greek sculpture.
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Капсулы Nespresso Original – это выбор миллионов поклонников качественного кофе по всему миру. Каждая капсула создана, чтобы вы могли насладиться эспрессо, ристретто или лунго с насыщенным ароматом, кремовой текстурой и идеальной экстракцией. Если вы цените стабильный вкус и удобство, система Original от Nespresso – это то, что вам нужно.
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Система капсульной кофемашины Nespresso Original рассчитана на точную подачу давления и объёма, что позволяет раскрыть вкус каждого сорта. Благодаря герметичной упаковке, капсулы для кофемашины Nespresso сохраняют свежесть и аромат до самого момента приготовления.
В коллекции представлены как классические капсулы Nespresso, так и лимитированные серии, созданные из моносортов арабики с разных уголков мира – от Колумбии до Эфиопии.
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Капсулы Nespresso Original – это выбор миллионов поклонников качественного кофе по всему миру. Каждая капсула создана, чтобы вы могли насладиться эспрессо, ристретто или лунго с насыщенным ароматом, кремовой текстурой и идеальной экстракцией. Если вы цените стабильный вкус и удобство, система Original от Nespresso – это то, что вам нужно.
Почему выбирают Nespresso Original?
Система капсульной кофемашины Nespresso Original рассчитана на точную подачу давления и объёма, что позволяет раскрыть вкус каждого сорта. Благодаря герметичной упаковке, капсулы для кофемашины Nespresso сохраняют свежесть и аромат до самого момента приготовления.
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Капсулы Nespresso Original – это выбор миллионов поклонников качественного кофе по всему миру. Каждая капсула создана, чтобы вы могли насладиться эспрессо, ристретто или лунго с насыщенным ароматом, кремовой текстурой и идеальной экстракцией. Если вы цените стабильный вкус и удобство, система Original от Nespresso – это то, что вам нужно.
Почему выбирают Nespresso Original?
Система капсульной кофемашины Nespresso Original рассчитана на точную подачу давления и объёма, что позволяет раскрыть вкус каждого сорта. Благодаря герметичной упаковке, капсулы для кофемашины Nespresso сохраняют свежесть и аромат до самого момента приготовления.
В коллекции представлены как классические капсулы Nespresso, так и лимитированные серии, созданные из моносортов арабики с разных уголков мира – от Колумбии до Эфиопии.
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